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Secret Societies are organizations in which the members are usually bound by an oath of secrecy. Secret societies often require an elaborate form of initiation and ritual use of symbols, passwords, and handgrips as a means of recognition among members. Secret societies are common among peoples in Melanesia and in parts of Africa. They are also found among some Native American tribes of North America, particularly the Pueblo and the Plains peoples. These societies are usually organized solely for religious purposes, but in some areas they exert a powerful force on the economic and political life of the community.
In ancient Greece, the Pythagoreans combined philosophy and politics. In the East, some Muslim sects were founded as secret societies, notably the Assassins, who were organized in Persia (now Iran) in the 12th century. Secret societies, usually formed for protective or political purposes, were widespread in China until the revolution of 1911. In Europe, unorthodox religious groups, such as the early Christians or the Manichaean sects, have frequently been forced to practice secrecy to avoid persecution. During the Middle Ages, members of merchant guilds were usually bound to secrecy for economic protection; one of the largest secret societies in the world, the Freemasons, originated in the 14th century as a guild of craftsmen. During this time, also, criminal jurisdiction was sometimes exercised by such secret tribunals as the courts of the Veme, a type of vigilante organization, which became extremely powerful in Westphalia, Germany, during the 15th century.
In the 17th and 18th centuries, secret societies were formed for scientific inquiry. Some, such as the Rosicrucian order, mixed science with mysticism. Others became important centers of political dissent. The Sons of Liberty was created in the American colonies in the 18th century to resist British oppression. In the 19th century, revolutionary secret societies such as the Carbonari in Italy, the Fenians in Ireland, and the Nihilists in Russia were important political forces. Other societies, notably the Mafia in Sicily, were established to organize criminal activities and to protect their members.In the U.S., some secret societies were created during the 19th and 20th centuries for protective or terrorist purposes, among them the Knights of the Golden Circle and the Ku Klux Klan. The principal reasons for the organization of secret societies in the U.S. and Europe during the 20th century, however, have been philanthropy and the mutual benefit of the members. In the U.S., the fraternal element has been traditionally predominant; secret organizations have also been an important feature of university life.
Historically, secret societies have been the subject of suspicion and speculation from non-members since the time of the ancient Greeks, when meetings were held "sub rosa" (Latin, "under the rose"). This phrase arises from the fact that the rose was the emblem of the god Horus in ancient Egypt. Later the Greeks and Romans regarded Horus as god of silence. This originates from a Greek/Roman misinterpretation of an Egyptian hieroglyphic adopting Horus along with Isis and Osiris as a god. The Greeks translated his Egyptian name Har-pa-khered to Harpocrates. The rose's connotation for secrecy also dates back to Greek mythology. Aphrodite gave a rose to her son Eros, the god of love; he, in turn, gave it to Harpocrates, the god of silence, to ensure that his mother's indiscretions (or those of the gods in general, in other accounts) were kept under wraps. In the Middle Ages a rose suspended from the ceiling of a council chamber pledged all present (those under the rose) to secrecy. Today the phrases "Sub Rosa" and "under the rose" are commonly used to indicate secrecy.
Since some secret societies have political aims, they are illegal in several countries. Poland has made the ban of secret political parties and political organizations a part of its constitution. Many student societies established on university campuses in the United States have been considered secret societies. These such collegiate secret societies are like the Flat Hat Club (1750) and Phi Beta Kappa (1776), both founded at William & Mary. The most famous member of the FHC was Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the United States. In correspondence, Jefferson noted that the Flat Hat Club served "no useful object." The nation's prestigious universities and liberal arts colleges are home to secret societies today. See list of collegiate secret societies.
Perhaps one of the most famous secret college societies is the Skull and Bones club, of which both presidents George H.W. Bush and George W. Bush and Senator John Kerry are members from their college years. The United States National Security Agency has been described as a secret society, since for many years, its very existence was a secret, as was its budget. People (such as James Bamford, in The Puzzle Palace, 1982) used to say that the letters NSA stood for "No Such Agency" or "Never Say Anything"; and, in the early 1990's, the CIA had a website but the NSA did not. This has changed: The NSA has had a website for several years, and its activities are debated in Congress and the press. Its budget is still classified, but it officially exists. Its activities are authorized and are paid for, although the details of those activities are closely-held secrets.
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